If Mormon “gathered in all the remainder of [his] people” (Mormon 6:5), then the total number of Nephites gathered was between a quarter million and a million, based on the casualty figures in Mormon 6:10-15. Most of these people probably lived in the land of Cumorah for a good part of the four years. To support so many, the land must have been extremely bountiful in wildlife, and extremely fertile.
Assuming a continental geographical model, one might wonder, How could so many people survive the winters of 4 years in New York? And why are the winters not mentioned? Even if by some miraculous circumstances there was enough food to sustain these millions in New York, how and why would the Lamanites coexist with the Nephites for years at a location 5000 miles from their home? Would fresh supplies be shipped from the lands south of the narrow pass (South America)? And without fresh supplies, why would the Lamanites refrain from fighting the Nephites over the rights to the available food and shelter? In addition, when Mormon states that he had gathered in ALL the remainder of his people (Mormon 6:5), does this also mean the Lamanites wiped clean the whole North American continent except at the “Hill Cumorah” in New York? [Alan C. Miner, Personal Notes]
Geographical [Theory Map]: Mormon 6:5 All the Nephites Have Gathered to Cumorah (385 A.S.)
The Hill Cumorah Geographical Setting
According to David Palmer, there is not one single directional statement given, from the time of the battles at the city of Desolation to the battle at Cumorah. There is nothing to suggest that the Nephites were not still within a few hundred kilometers of the Isthmus… . Based on direct statements from the text of the Book of Mormon, and in a few cases, strong inferences drawn from statements in the text, a list of topographic and geographic criteria for Mormon’s Cumorah has been developed. These criteria are as follows:
1. It was near an eastern seacoast (Ether 9:3).
2. It was near a narrow neck of land (Alma 22:29-32, Mormon 2:29, Mormon 3:5) (Alma 43) (Alma 56) Alma 50:33-34, 52:9) (Mormon 2:29, 3:5-7, Alma 63:5) (Ether 10:22-28).
3. It was on a coastal plain, and possibly near other mountains and valleys (Ether 14:12-15).
4. It was one day’s journey south (east-south-east in modern coordinates) of a large body of water (Ether 15:8-11).
5. It was in an area of many rivers and waters (Mormon 6:4).
6. It was in the presence of fountains (Mormon 6:4).
7. The abundance of water apparently provided a military advantage (Mormon 6:4).
8. There was an escape route to the land (“country”) southward (Mormon 8:2).
9. The hill was large enough to provide a view of hundreds of thousands of bodies (Mormon 6:11). 10. The hill was apparently a significant landmark (Ether 9:3; Mormon 6:6).
11. The hill was apparently free standing so people could camp around it (Mormon 6:2, 6:11).
12. The climate was apparently temperate with no cold or snow (No record of cold or snow) (Enos 1:20) (Alma 46:40)
13. The hill was located in a volcanic zone susceptible to earthquakes (3 Nephi 8:6-23)
[David A. Palmer, In Search of Cumorah, pp. 42, 53]
The Hill Cumorah Geographical Setting
David Palmer and Joseph Allen have listed the following reasons for labeling the Cerro Vigia located in the state of Veracruz, Mexico as the Hill Cumorah:
1. Near an Eastern seacoast: The Gulf of Mexico constitutes an eastern seacoast 30-40 miles from the Hill Vigia.
2. Near the Narrow Neck of Land (Narrow Pass): The Hill Vigia is about 60 miles from the top of a pass that runs through the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
3. On a Coastal Plain and Possibly Near Other Mountains (hill Shim?) and Valleys: The Hill Vigia is situated so it overlooks a coastal plain. Looking inland, there is another expansive plain. Towards the Gulf of Mexico and stretching down towards the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, lies the heart of the volcanic Tuxtla mountain chain.
4. One Day’s Journey South of a Large Body of Water: About 20 kilometers “north” of Cerro (Hill) Vigia is the beginning of the vast expanse of water known as the Papaloapan lagoon system. Large oceangoing vessels are used to fish those waters… . Since this area is neither a lake nor a river it is a good candidate for “Ripliancum” which was interpreted as “large, or to exceed all.”
5. In an Area of Many Rivers and Waters: The Tuxtla mountain range is encompassed by two great drainage systems, the Papaloapan, and the Coatzacoalcos. The general area of the Cerro (Hill) Vigia was known anciently as “nonohualco,” which means “place where water is everywhere.”
6. Presence of Fountains: The Hill Vigia is located in a land of pure water where streams of underground water spring forth.
7. The Abundance of Water Must Provide a Military Advantage: The Tuxtla Mountain area is the Hawaii of Mexico. What does all this information about climate and water have to do with a military advantage? Palmer postulates that the military advantage sought was attraction of people. The battle was basically a numbers game. People could only be attracted to an army if they were fed, and how does one go about providing food for an army of a quarter million people? The way Mormon chose to provide food for his peopled during the four year gathering period was to choose as the place of his last stand one of the most fertile areas of the Western Hemisphere.
8. Escape Route to the Land Southward: Those escaping to the “south countries” would have followed the route … skirting the northern flank of the Tuxtlas and approaching the sea. From there they would have been able to travel down to the isthmus virtually undetected, having a mountain range between them and the Lamanites.
9. Hill Must Be Large Enough to Provide a View of Hundreds of Thousands of Bodies: The Hill Vigia is about 2,400 feet high. A person can make a round trip to the top in 3-4 hours.
10. The Hill Must be a Significant Landmark: Cerro Vigia is easily distinguishable since it sits on the plain out of the main line of the Tuxtla chain. Friedlander found in 1922 that the Indians considered Cerro Vigia sacred. This may be related to the fact that a number of the Olmec monuments were carved from basalt taken from Cerro Vigia. This hill also appears to have been used for astronomical sightings… . These were important for maintenance of the calendar which was used for a guide in the planting of crops.
11. The Hill Should be Free Standing so People Can Camp Around it: Cerro Vigia stands apart from the rest of the Tuxtla Mountain chain, separated from it by the city of Santiago Tuxtla.
12 The Hill Should be in a Temperate Climate with no Cold or Snow: The Tuxtlas are a year-round resort for the Mexican tourists. The area is the Hawaii of Mexico.
13. The hill is in a Volcanic Zone Subject to Earthquakes: Mesoamerica has been an area of very heavy volcanic activity. Mexico has about 37 recent volcanoes, twelve currently active. In Central America there are 67 recent volcanoes, 32 presently active. Both Mexico and Central American countries are plagued by earthquakes.
From a purely logical point of view, the Latter-day Saint “Hill Cumorah” in New York meets only partially the above Book of Mormon requirements for the Nephite Hill Cumorah. [David A. Palmer, In Search of Cumorah, pp. 96-101; and Joseph L. Allen, Exploring the Lands of the Book of Mormon, pp. 343-344]
The Book of Mormon itself must stand as the best witness of the criteria necessary to locate the Jaredite, Nephite, Lamanite, and Mulekite cultures. Therefore, thirteen geographic/topographic criteria were determined from the text. A discussion of the specific references from the Book of Mormon is given in the book, In Search of Cumorah by David Palmer (pp. 28-72).
The hill in New York meets criteria 2 (minimally), 4, 5, and 11. It does not meet the others. The hill Vigia in Mexico, proposed by Palmer (In Search of Cumorah, pp. 89-123) and Sorenson (An Ancient American Setting, p. 350) meets all of them. [David A. Palmer, Book Review in Review of Books on the Book of Mormon, Vol. 2, 1990, pp. 69-71]
The Hill Cumorah Cultural Setting
According to David Palmer, fifteen traits and types of archaeological information are required for any candidate hill to be called the “hill Cumorah” (Mormon 6:4). The following is an evaluation of Cerro Vigia (“Lookout Hill”) in Mesoamerica:
1. Cities in the Vicinity of the Hill: The Cerro Vigia is surrounded by ruins dating to the Jaredite and Nephite times… . The more ancient ruins are found in southern Veracruz, where the Cerro Vigia is located.
2. Towers or stepped Pyramids for Religious Purposes: In the Nephite period there were large pyramids located in the following archaeological sites: in Guatemala (Kaminaljuyu), in the state of Chiapas, Mexico (Izapa, Chiapa de Corzo, etc.), in the state of Oaxaca (Dainzu) and in the valley of Mexico (Cuicuilco, Teotihuacan, Tlapacoya, and Cholula).
The pyramid at La Venta, in the state of Tabasco, Mexico is entirely manmade. It apparently served as a focal point for the Olmec religion from about 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. Another Jaredite time period pyramid is seen at the site of San Jose Mogote, in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico.
3. Efficient Agriculture: Stantley (1982) has found strong evidence for intensive early Preclassic (400-600 B.C.) farming in the Tuxtla mountains of southern Veracruz, Mexico. Work by Flannery in Oaxaca, Mexico has shown that the people exploited the high water table by digging wells and carrying water to irrigate their crops. As many as ten wells would be located in a one-acre plot. This technological advance allowed such efficient food production that at least half the population was able to turn to craft manufacture and mining. (Flannery, 1967) Three crops per year are possible using intensive irrigation. The use of canal systems for irrigation can be firmly dated to at least 400 B.C. in Oaxaca, with some village runoff canals going back to 1000 B.C. (Flannery, 1976)
4. Metallurgy: In Nephite times the presence of iron is found at the archaeological site of Kaminaljuyu in Guatemala City (a proposed site for the city of Nephi)… . However, the antiquity of use of ancient metals in Mesoamerica is placed at 1500 B.C. This is based on language studies called glotto-chronology (Campbell and Kaufman, 1976).
5. Formal Political States: Mesoamerica offers the best examples of organized political states in America during Jaredite and Nephite times. The Olmec (Jaredite time period) centers of San Lorenzo and La Venta, with their monumental sculptures [of the heads of their leaders] are the best examples. During Nephite times the centers of Kaminaljuyu, Izapa, Chiapa de Corzo, Monte Alban, Dainzu, Santa rosa, and Teotihuacan are just a few examples.
6. Organized Religion: No one seriously questions the fact that organized religion was a very important cultural and historical factor in Mesoamerica from the very earliest times. This is documented in the accounts of ancient Mesoamerican history, such as the writings of Ixtlilxochitl.
7. Idolatry at Certain Times: From Mesoamerican archaeology we have been able to learn quite specifically what types of idols were worshipped in Lamanite-Nephite times and even in Jaredite times. The reason is that many of the idols were made in either stone or ceramic, and have survived.
8. Craft Specialization: Professions which can be archaeologically documented in Mesoamerica developed in Jaredite and Nephite time periods. These include spinners, weavers, architects, rock quarryers, sculptors, transportation experts, paper makers, artists, and workers of obsidian. In Teotihuacan alone, over five hundred craft workshops have been found.
9. Trade: Long distance trade developed in Mesoamerica at least by 1500 B.C. and was an important factor thereafter.
10. Writing: The earliest Mesoamerican writing system of which we have evidence appeared about 600 B.C. in Oaxaca, Mexico. Secondary evidence suggest strongly the use of writing on paper in early times. Scripts are found on cylinder seals as well as monuments. Such seals, which are similar to those in use in Mesopotamia, have been found in a number of places in Mesoamerica, including the Cerro Vigia.
11. Weaponry in Immediate Vicinity of Hill: The museum in Santiago Tuxtla at the base of the Cerro Vigia has on display only a few artifacts from the vicinity of the hill. Yet not only are there arrowheads and spear points, but also a variety of axe heads and other fearsome stone weapons.
12 & 13. Astronomy and Calendar: Observation of the heavenly bodies was intimately tied to the development of an accurate calendar. So accurate were the observations recorded that the Maya possessed a calendar superior to that of the Europeans who came to “civilize” them.
14. Cement: The use of cement and concrete spread throughout Mesoamerica in a time span from at least as early as 100 B.C. through A.D. 400. The tourist sees it in great abundance at Teotihuacan. At Kaminaljuyu the concrete mix was similar.
15. Wheels: The only direct evidence thus far encountered for wheels in Mesoamerica is on toys. About thirty examples of wheeled toys have been found, the earliest of which were discovered at the archaeological site of Tres Zapotes, near the Cerro Vigia.
In summary, though the Cerro Vigia passes all the criteria set down in the pages of the Book of Mormon, that does not necessarily prove that the correct hill has been identified. Any proposed alternative, however, must be subjected to the same stringent tests and pass them all. [David A. Palmer, In Search of Cumorah, pp. 106-123]
Mormon 6:4 We did pitch our tents round about the hill Cumorah ([Illustration] The information in Mormon’s record about the final battle area matches in detail the characteristics of this hill, Cerro El Vigia, in southern Veracruz state and the region around it. this view of 2600-foot El Vigia is from the plains to its southwest, where the final battle likely took place. [John L. Sorenson, Images of Ancient America, p. 211]
Mormon 6:4 And [the hill Cumorah] was in a land of many waters, rivers, and fountains ([Illustration] The land of Cumorah was an area with many streams and lakes, like this zone at the foot of Cerro El Vigia in south-central Veracruz state. [John L. Sorenson, Images of Ancient America, p. 210]
Mormon 6:4 And [the hill Cumorah] was in a land of many waters, rivers, and fountains ([Illustration] Lago de Catemaco in the Tuxtlas Mountains of southern Veracruz qualifies as part of the complex of “many waters, rivers, and fountains” in the area of Cumorah (Mormon 6:4). [John L. Sorenson, Images of Ancient America, p. 202]
Mormon 6:4 It was a land of many waters, rivers, and fountains ([Illustration] Eyipantla waterfalls near San Andreas Tuxtla may be part of the “land of many waters, rivers, and fountains” where Mormon had all the Nephites gather for the “last struggle” with the Lamanites. Mormon states that “here we had hope to gain advantage over the Lamanites.” It was the same place the Jaredites had come for their last, great battle, likely for the same reason. There were Jaredite fortifications already in place that could be rebuilt. What does Mormon’s statement mean? Possible explanations are that, according to legend, this area was associated with ritualistic and spiritual power. It may have also been considered an entrance into the underworld. Here natural terrain could be used to form a strong, defensive stance. [Scot and Maurine Proctor, Light from the Dust, p. 194]